Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Carbon Monoxide (CO) Distribution According to Deforestation in West Kalimantan, Indonesia
Main Article Content
Abstract
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a harmful air pollutant primarily produced through biomass burning, including forest fires and deforestation activities. West Kalimantan Province, which has undergone massive land cover change, is a crucial area for examining the link between deforestation and the increase in atmospheric CO concentrations. This study aims to analyze the spatial and temporal relationship between CO distribution and deforestation throughout 2024. CO data were obtained from Sentinel-5P satellite imagery, while deforestation detection was carried out using the Normalized Burn Ratio (NBR) and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), derived from Sentinel-2A imagery. The NBR index was used to detect areas affected by fire or land conversion, while the NDVI reflects vegetation health conditions. The analysis results show that regions with increased NBR and decreased NDVI tend to have high CO concentrations. The Pearson correlation between NBR and CO indicates a very strong positive relationship, while the correlation between NDVI and CO shows a weak to moderate negative relationship. However, the dominance of cloud cover in most Sentinel-2A imagery in West Kalimantan potentially affects the quality and representativeness of the resulting vegetation data. This study highlights that deforestation significantly contributes to the decline in air quality, demonstrating that satellite-based remote sensing is an effective tool for air pollution monitoring and supporting environmental mitigation policies.
Article Details
References
Escuin, S., Navarro, R., & Fernández, P. (2008). Fire severity assessment by using NBR (Normalized Burn Ratio) and NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) derived from LANDSAT TM/ETM images. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 29(4), 1053–1073.
Fadhilah, N. A. Q., Ramadhania, N., Sanjaya, H., Sukojo, B. M., & Poespo, M. D. (2022, December). Spatio-Temporal Analysis of SO2 Concentrations Due to Volcanic Eruptions in Indonesia Using Sentinel-5P with Earth Engine Platform. In 2022 IEEE Asia-Pacific Conference on Geoscience, Electronics and Remote Sensing Technology (AGERS) (pp. 123–129). IEEE.
Fitriany, A. A., Flatau, P. J., Khoirunurrofik, K., & Riama, N. F. (2021). Assessment on the use of meteorological and social media information for forest fire detection and prediction in Riau, Indonesia. Sustainability, 13(20), 11188.
Hanami, Z. A., Amin, M., Hustim, M., Putri, R. M., Torabi, S. E., Ramadhani, A. A. T., & Suryati, I. (2025). Spatial–Temporal Changes in Air Pollutants in Four Provinces of Sumatra Island, Indonesia: Insights from Sentinel-5P Satellite Imagery. Urban Science, 9(2), 42.
He, C., Kumar, R., Tang, W., Pfister, G., Xu, Y., Qian, Y., & Brasseur, G. (2024). Air pollution interactions with weather and climate extremes: current knowledge, gaps, and future directions. Current Pollution Reports, 10(3), 430–442.
Keppens, A., Di Pede, S., Hubert, D., Lambert, J. C., Veefkind, P., Sneep, M., ... & Zehner, C. (2024). 5 years of Sentinel-5P TROPOMI operational ozone profiling and geophysical validation using ozonesonde and lidar ground-based networks. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 17(13), 3969–3993.
Kolanek, A., Szymanowski, M., & Raczyk, A. (2021). Human activity affects forest fires: The impact of anthropogenic factors on the density of forest fires in Poland. Forests, 12(6), 728.
Liu, C. L., Wang, Y. R., & Liu, W. Y. (2025). Multi-index remote sensing for post-fire damage assessment: accuracy, carbon loss, and conservation implications. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 8, 1577612.
Liu, J., Cohen, J. B., He, Q., Tiwari, P., & Qin, K. (2024). Accounting for NOx emissions from biomass burning and urbanization doubles existing inventories over South, Southeast and East Asia. Communications Earth & Environment, 5(1), 255.
Mandal, M., Popek, R., Przybysz, A., Roy, A., Das, S., & Sarkar, A. (2023). Breathing fresh air in the city: implementing avenue trees as a sustainable solution to reduce particulate pollution in urban agglomerations. Plants, 12(7), 1545.
Margono, B., Potapov, P., Turubanova, S. et al. (2014). Primary forest cover loss in Indonesia over 2000–2012. Nature Clim Change, 4, 730–735. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2277
Mathew, N., Somanathan, A., Tirpude, A., & Arfin, T. (2024). The impact of short-lived climate pollutants on the human health. Environmental Pollution and Management, 1, 1–14.
Mills, M. B., Malhi, Y., Ewers, R. M., Kho, L. K., Teh, Y. A., Both, S., ... & Riutta, T. (2023). Tropical forests post-logging are a persistent net carbon source to the atmosphere. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(3), e2214462120.
Mohamed, H., Hassan, A., & Elhag, A. (2025). A five-year Study Using Sentinel-5P Data Observing Seasonal Dynamics and Long-term Trends of Atmospheric Pollutants. International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences, 10(2), 262–271.
Patarasuk, R., Gurney, K. R., O’Keeffe, D., Song, Y., Huang, J., Rao, P., ... & Ehleringer, J. R. (2016). Urban high-resolution fossil fuel CO2 emissions quantification and exploration of emission drivers for potential policy applications. Urban Ecosystems, 19(3), 1013–1039.
Perez-Martinez, P. J., Miranda, R. M. D., Andrade, M. D. F., & Kumar, P. (2020). Air quality and fossil fuel driven transportation in the Metropolitan Area of São Paulo. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 5, 100137.
Roman-Cuesta, R. M., Rufino, M. C., Herold, M., Butterbach-Bahl, K., Rosenstock, T. S., Herrero, M., ... & De Bruin, S. (2016). Hotspots of gross emissions from the land use sector: patterns, uncertainties, and leading emission sources for the period 2000–2005 in the tropics. Biogeosciences, 13(14), 4253–4269.
Saharjo, B. H., & Novita, N. (2021). The high potential of peatland fires management for greenhouse gas emissions reduction in Indonesia. Journal of Tropical Silviculture, 2086, 8277.
Shrestha, D. P., Saepuloh, A., & van der Meer, F. (2019). Land cover classification in the tropics, solving the problem of cloud covered areas using topographic parameters. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 77, 84–93.
Singh, H., Srivastava, P. K., Prasad, R., & Srivastava, S. K. (2025). Tracking Post-Fire Vegetation Regrowth and Burned Areas Using Bitemporal Sentinel-1 SAR Data: A Google Earth Engine Approach in Heath Vegetation of Mooloolah River National Park, Queensland, Australia. Remote Sensing, 17(12), 2031.
Taboada-Hermoza, R., & Martínez, A. G. (2025). “No One Is Safe”: Agricultural Burnings, Wildfires and Risk Perception in Two Agropastoral Communities in the Puna of Cusco, Peru. Fire, 8(2), 60.
Viana, M., Hammingh, P., Colette, A., Querol, X., Degraeuwe, B., de Vlieger, I., & Van Aardenne, J. (2014). Impact of maritime transport emissions on coastal air quality in Europe. Atmospheric Environment, 90, 96–105.
Wegscheider, S., Purwanto, J., Margono, B. A., Nugroho, S., Buchholz, G., & Sugardiman, R. A. (2018). Current achievements to reduce deforestation in Kalimantan. The Indonesian Journal Of Geography, 50(2), 109–120.
Yang, Y., Zhou, W., Gao, Q., Zhao, D., Liu, X., & Wang, Y. (2022). Effects of air pollutants on summer precipitation in different regions of Beijing. Atmosphere, 13(1), 141.